Cross-bearing in Early Christianity

Ruben van Wingerden explores how early Christians interpreted Jesus’ call to “carry one’s cross” and shows how early Christian readers, operating within diverse cultural and theological contexts, expanded and reshaped the meaning of cross-bearing from its New Testament origins into a rich and multifaceted tradition.

Ruben van Wingerden investigates how the motif of bearing one’s cross was interpreted in early Christianity up to the third century. First, he analyses the New Testament tradition: Mark and Matthew link cross-bearing with the readiness to die under persecution, while Luke tones down associations with physical death, presenting it as renunciation of possessions. John omits Simon of Cyrene and stresses Jesus’ self-sufficiency in laying down his life. Simon himself is read against the background of the Greco-Roman motif of the noble death, where the innocent philosopher maintains his dignity.

Secondly, the author traces subsequent interpretations by early Christian authors. Writers such as Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Cyprian, Novatian, and Origen developed a range of perspectives, from metaphorical to martyrological. A recurring insight is that cross-bearing was understood as readiness for martyrdom, never as a literal invitation to crucifixion. Origen marks the first instance in which Simon of Cyrene is linked to discipleship. Strikingly, Luke 9:23 with its “daily” addition disappears in these sources, reflecting a context where persecution required emphasis on immediate readiness for death rather than daily discipline. Moreover, sayings from Matthew and Luke often appear as blended formulae, indicating a flexible textual tradition. By situating these interpretations within Jewish, Roman, and philosophical frameworks, Ruben van Wingerden shows how early Christian readers reshaped the motif into a complex tradition that intertwined physical martyrdom with spiritual death to possessions, passions, and family ties.

Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1. Presentation of the Study
1.2. Preliminary Scholarly Discussion
1.3. Basic Problems, Terminology, and Ancient Context
1.4. Outline of the Study
Chapter 2: History of Research
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Cross-Bearing in Biblical Studies
2.3. Cross-bearing in Martyrdom Studies
2.4. Umberto Eco in New Testament Studies
2.5. Concluding Observations
Chapter 3: Umberto Eco's Cooperative Reader
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Eco's Model
3.3. Eco's Own Examples
3.4. From Model to Use
Chapter 4: Cross-bearing in Mark
4.1. Cross-bearing in the Synoptic Gospels
4.2. Introduction to Cross-bearing in Mark
4.3. Mark 8:34
4.4. Mark 15:21
4.5. Conclusions
Chapter 5: Cross-bearing in Matthew
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Matthew 10:38
5.3. Matthew 16:24
5.4. Matthew 27:32
5.5. Conclusions
Chapter 6: Cross-bearing in Luke
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Luke 9:23
6.3. Luke 14:27
6.4. Luke 23:26
6.5. Conclusions
Chapter 7: Cross-bearing in John
7.1. Introduction
7.2. John 19:17
7.3. John 21:18
7.4. Conclusions
Chapter 8: Cross-bearing in Early Christian Literature up to the Second Century
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Gospel of Thomas and Second Discourse of the Great Seth
8.3. Irenaeus of Lyon
8.4. Melito of Sardis
8.5. Clement of Alexandria
8.6. Hippolyte Corpus
8.7. Conclusions
Chapter 9: Cross-bearing in Third-Century Early Christian Literature
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Tertullian
9.3. Cyprian of Carthage
9.4. Novatian
9.5. Pseudo-Clementine Letters
9.6. Conclusions

• By (author) Ruben van Wingerden