Rewriting the History of the Great Sphinx

This book reinterprets the Great Sphinx, challenging its traditional dating and meaning. Drawing on archaeological and geological evidence, it argues the monument predates Egypt’s first pyramids and reveals early ritual activity at Giza, reshaping views of its origins and symbolism.

The Great Sphinx has guarded the Giza Plateau in Egypt for many thousands of years. Despite there being relatively little direct evidence, it is generally assumed that this iconic monument is some 4500 years old, built at the same time as Giza’s great pyramids. This book challenges the established history of the Giza Necropolis to present the only comprehensive, evidence-led account of the history and ritual meaning of the Great Sphinx. After re-examining the archaeological evidence and then considering the important role of geology, the book concludes that the Great Sphinx and a number of related monuments, were built at Giza in the earliest stages of the Pharaonic Era – in the period before Egypt’s first pyramids were built. Perhaps more surprisingly, evidence emerges that the Great Sphinx may not have been the first monument built at Giza, with indications of ritual activity at this important site, which pre-dates Egypt’s first pharaohs. By answering these uncertainties regarding the age of the Great Sphinx, a new picture unfolds of what the concept of the human-headed lion meant to the people that originally built it.

List of Figures and Tables Image credits Acknowledgments Part 1 - Setting The Scene Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 2: Ancient Egypt The Early Dynastic Period The Old Kingdom The Middle Kingdom The New Kingdom The Late Period and Greco-Roman Period The Basis for our Understanding of the Early Dynastic Period and Old Kingdom Chapter 3: The Great Sphinx The Great Sphinx The Sphinx Enclosure Clearing the Sand Chapter 4: The Giza Necropolis The Khufu Pyramid Complex The Khafra Pyramid Complex The Menkaura Pyramid Complex The Tomb of Khentkawes Later Activity at Giza Chapter 5: The Giza Landscape The Natural Topography of the Giza Plateau Ancient Quarrying at Giza The Influence of Natural Topography on the Development of the Giza Necropolis Chapter 6: The Conventional View A Conundrum Examining the Case for Khafra as the Builder of the Great Sphinx The Sphinx Temple The Face of the Great Sphinx The View of Egyptology Chapter 7: Giza before Khufu: Mainstream Archaeological Evidence The Ma'adi Culture The Southern Escarpment and Main Wadi Previous Development within the Giza Necropolis? Reisner's Evidence for Development Before the Pyramids Part 2 - Geology Matters Chapter 8: The Geology of Egypt and the Giza Plateau The Formation of Rocks and Fossils Earth Movements Geological Timescales and the Evolution of the Egyptian Landmass The First Rivers in Egypt The Geology of the Giza Plateau Chapter 9: The Geology of the Great Sphinx Member I Strata Member II Strata Member III Strata The Degradation of the Great Sphinx Rainfall in Egypt and the Surface Hydrology of the Giza Plateau Part 3 - Ancient Egypt's Earliest Dynasties Chapter 10: Evidence for an Early Sphinx The Effect of Quarrying on Run-Off 'Now Picture to Yourself this Scene!' What if Khufu had built the Great Sphinx? The Effects of Modern Rainfall The Sphinx Temple The Khafra Causeway Early Activity at Giza Chapter 11: Companions of the Early Sphinx Time for a Re-cap A Note About Comparisons The Khafra Valley Temple The Proto-Mortuary Temple Khentkawes The Tomb of Kai Niched Facade Decoration at Giza Chapter 12: Building the Great Sphinx Skills and Experience - A Stone-Working Context for the Early Origins of the Great Sphinx The Use of Stone in Early Dynastic Egypt The Great Enclosures of Saqqara Other Examples of the Early Use of Stone in Construction at Saqqara The Early Use of Stone in Construction at Other Sites Late Second Dynasty Royal Tombs The Third Dynasty The Second Dynasty: An Important Period for Stone Masonry Objection!! Part 4 - The History of the Great Sphinx Chapter 13: The Origins of the Sphinx Ancient Records: Towards an Understanding of the Concept of the Sphinx Ancient Egypt's Complex Religion The Netjerikhet Stela Serpents, Jackals and Lions: Interpreting the Decoration of the Netjerikhet Stela Mehen: The Board Game The Concept of the Sphinx Chapter 14: The Rise of the Sun-God Early Pharaonic Associations with Ra The Role of Iunu The Power and Authority of Pharaoh The Development of the Great Sphinx of Giza From Lion to Sphinx The Sphinx and the Ba The Rise of the Sun-God Chapter 15: The Great Sphinx of Giza The Copper-Age at Giza Appendices Appendix A: Original Ground Levels in the Vicinity of the Great Sphinx 1. The Low Hill at the Eastern Edge of the Giza Plateau 2. Lehner's Original Ground Level Model 3. Summary and Conclusions Appendix B: The Sequence of Construction of the Great Sphinx, the Khafra Valley Temple and the Sphinx Temple 1. Introduction 2. The Mainstream Sequence of Construction Summary: The Mainstream Sequence of Construction 3. The Sequence of Construction Starting with the Great Sphinx Summary: The Alternative Sequence of Construction 4. The Most Likely Sequence of Construction Appendix C: Mapping the Member II Strata at Giza 1. Introduction 2. The Process Used 3. Strata Exposed at the Khentkawes Tomb and the Tomb of Kai Bibliography Index,

List of Figures and Tables

Image credits

Acknowledgments

Part 1 - Setting The Scene

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 2: Ancient Egypt

The Early Dynastic Period

The Old Kingdom

The Middle Kingdom

The New Kingdom

The Late Period and Greco-Roman Period

The Basis for our Understanding of the Early Dynastic Period and Old Kingdom

Chapter 3: The Great Sphinx

The Great Sphinx

The Sphinx Enclosure

Clearing the Sand

Chapter 4: The Giza Necropolis

The Khufu Pyramid Complex

The Khafra Pyramid Complex

The Menkaura Pyramid Complex

The Tomb of Khentkawes

Later Activity at Giza

Chapter 5: The Giza Landscape

The Natural Topography of the Giza Plateau

Ancient Quarrying at Giza

The Influence of Natural Topography on the Development of the Giza Necropolis

Chapter 6: The Conventional View

A Conundrum

Examining the Case for Khafra as the Builder of the Great Sphinx

The Sphinx Temple

The Face of the Great Sphinx

The View of Egyptology

Chapter 7: Giza before Khufu: Mainstream Archaeological Evidence

The Ma’adi Culture

The Southern Escarpment and Main Wadi

Previous Development within the Giza Necropolis?

Reisner’s Evidence for Development Before the Pyramids

Part 2 – Geology Matters

Chapter 8: The Geology of Egypt and the Giza Plateau

The Formation of Rocks and Fossils

Earth Movements

Geological Timescales and the Evolution of the Egyptian Landmass

The First Rivers in Egypt

The Geology of the Giza Plateau

Chapter 9: The Geology of the Great Sphinx

Member I Strata

Member II Strata

Member III Strata

The Degradation of the Great Sphinx

Rainfall in Egypt and the Surface Hydrology of the Giza Plateau

Part 3 – Ancient Egypt’s Earliest Dynasties

Chapter 10: Evidence for an Early Sphinx

The Effect of Quarrying on Run-Off

‘Now Picture to Yourself this Scene!’

What if Khufu had built the Great Sphinx?

The Effects of Modern Rainfall

The Sphinx Temple

The Khafra Causeway

Early Activity at Giza

Chapter 11: Companions of the Early Sphinx

Time for a Re-cap

A Note About Comparisons

The Khafra Valley Temple

The Proto-Mortuary Temple

Khentkawes

The Tomb of Kai

Niched Façade Decoration at Giza

Chapter 12: Building the Great Sphinx

Skills and Experience – A Stone-Working Context for the Early Origins of the Great Sphinx

The Use of Stone in Early Dynastic Egypt

The Great Enclosures of Saqqara

Other Examples of the Early Use of Stone in Construction at Saqqara

The Early Use of Stone in Construction at Other Sites

Late Second Dynasty Royal Tombs

The Third Dynasty

The Second Dynasty: An Important Period for Stone Masonry

Objection!!

Part 4 – The History of the Great Sphinx

Chapter 13: The Origins of the Sphinx

Ancient Records: Towards an Understanding of the Concept of the Sphinx

Ancient Egypt’s Complex Religion

The Netjerikhet Stela

Serpents, Jackals and Lions: Interpreting the Decoration of the Netjerikhet Stela

Mehen: The Board Game

The Concept of the Sphinx

Chapter 14: The Rise of the Sun-God

Early Pharaonic Associations with Ra

The Role of Iunu

The Power and Authority of Pharaoh

The Development of the Great Sphinx of Giza

From Lion to Sphinx

The Sphinx and the Ba

The Rise of the Sun-God

Chapter 15: The Great Sphinx of Giza

The Copper-Age at Giza

Appendices

Appendix A: Original Ground Levels in the Vicinity of the Great Sphinx

1. The Low Hill at the Eastern Edge of the Giza Plateau

2. Lehner’s Original Ground Level Model

3. Summary and Conclusions

Appendix B: The Sequence of Construction of the Great Sphinx, the Khafra Valley Temple and the Sphinx Temple

1. Introduction

2. The Mainstream Sequence of Construction

Summary: The Mainstream Sequence of Construction

3. The Sequence of Construction Starting with the Great Sphinx

Summary: The Alternative Sequence of Construction

4. The Most Likely Sequence of Construction

Appendix C: Mapping the Member II Strata at Giza

1. Introduction                                               

2. The Process Used

3. Strata Exposed at the Khentkawes Tomb and the Tomb of Kai

Bibliography

Index

• By (author) Colin D. Reader