Iron and the Iron Age

A comprehensive account of the adoption of ironworking in Europe and Western Asia, based on archaeological evidence alongside written sources from the Neat East. Southern Europe and the Near East are the focus, but the book also considers early ironworking in Central Europe, the North Pontic steppe and the regions north and south of the Caucasus.

Iron and the Iron Age presents a comprehensive account of the adoption of ironworking in Europe and Western Asia. The study is mainly based on archaeological evidence, but the early introduction of iron in the Near East also takes account of the written sources. After the fundamental innovation of iron production by smelting iron ores, iron use spread at an ever-increasing rate between the 12th and 9th centuries BC – eventually reaching a vast area between the Atlantic coast in the west and the North China Plain in the east. The book mainly concentrates on the adoption of iron in the Near East and southern Europe, but also includes discussions of early ironworking in Central Europe, the North Pontic steppe and the regions north and south of the Caucasus. The changing conceptualization of bronze and iron is another theme which receives detailed attention. In the final part of the book, the study turns to the concept of an ‘Iron Age’, and the fundamental culture-historical disjunctions and transformations which can be observed in many regions at the time of the introduction of iron.

Acknowledgements Chapter 1. Introduction Iron and the production process The archaeological sources: problems and potential Technological innovation and social context Notes on the structure of the book Chapter 2. The Near East Evidence from textual sources during the 2nd millennium BC Earlier archaeological evidence (ca. 20th - 13th century BC) Later archaeological evidence (ca. 13th - 10th century BC) Discussion and conclusions Chapter 3. Cyprus Iron in Late Cypriot IIIA Iron in Late Cypriot IIIB Iron in Cypro-Geometric I Discussion and conclusions Chapter 4. The Aegean Iron before 1200 BC The 12th and the first half of the 11th century BC The second half of the 11th and the early 10th century BC The 10th century BC Discussion and conclusions Chapter 5. The eastern Balkan Peninsula Knobbed, fluted and stamped pottery Selected early iron artefacts Discussion and conclusions Chapter 6. The area north of the Black Sea The Bilozerka culture The Hordiivka cemetery Cultures between the Dnister and the Carpathians The Chernoles and Bondarikha cultures of the forest steppe Discussion and conclusions Chapter 7. The Caucasus South of the Caucasus North of the Caucasus Chapter 8. The central and western Balkan Peninsula Albania, Dalmatia and Istria Slovenia Bosnia-Hercegovina and central and northern Croatia The central Balkans Bronze and iron in hoard depositions Bronze and iron in the manufacture of swords, dirks and daggers Discussion and conclusions Chapter 9. The Carpathian Basin and the wider European context of the introduction of iron Notes on early iron in Transylvania and the Banat The earliest iron in the Carpathian Basin and the area north of the Alps Iron in the late Urnfield period: utilitarian implements and status symbols Hoard deposition in the Carpathian Basin and the Bronze/Iron transition Crisis and system collapse in the Carpathian Basin The demise of the Standard Bronze value system Discussion and conclusions Chapter 10. Italy Southern Italy Sicily Sardinia Central Italy Northern Italy Discussion and conclusions Chapter 11. The Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands The Villena Treasure Phoenician traders and the first colonial foundations The introduction of iron in Portugal The introduction of iron in Spain Discussion and conclusions Chapter 12. Conclusions Frequently occurring forms of artefacts during the early stages of the adoption of iron Summary of the main trends in the introduction of iron Iron and the Iron Age Concluding remarks and perspectives for future research References,

Acknowledgements

Chapter 1. Introduction

Iron and the production process

The archaeological sources: problems and potential

Technological innovation and social context

Notes on the structure of the book

Chapter 2. The Near East

Evidence from textual sources during the 2nd millennium BC

Earlier archaeological evidence (ca. 20th – 13th century BC)

Later archaeological evidence (ca. 13th – 10th century BC)

Discussion and conclusions

Chapter 3. Cyprus

Iron in Late Cypriot IIIA

Iron in Late Cypriot IIIB

Iron in Cypro-Geometric I

Discussion and conclusions

Chapter 4. The Aegean

Iron before 1200 BC

The 12th and the first half of the 11th century BC

The second half of the 11th and the early 10th century BC

The 10th century BC

Discussion and conclusions

Chapter 5. The eastern Balkan Peninsula

Knobbed, fluted and stamped pottery

Selected early iron artefacts

Discussion and conclusions

Chapter 6. The area north of the Black Sea

The Bilozerka culture

The Hordiivka cemetery

Cultures between the Dnister and the Carpathians

The Chernoles and Bondarikha cultures of the forest steppe

Discussion and conclusions

Chapter 7. The Caucasus

South of the Caucasus

North of the Caucasus

Chapter 8. The central and western Balkan Peninsula

Albania, Dalmatia and Istria

Slovenia

Bosnia-Hercegovina and central and northern Croatia

The central Balkans

Bronze and iron in hoard depositions

Bronze and iron in the manufacture of swords, dirks and daggers

Discussion and conclusions

Chapter 9. The Carpathian Basin and the wider European context of the introduction of iron

Notes on early iron in Transylvania and the Banat

The earliest iron in the Carpathian Basin and the area north of the Alps

Iron in the late Urnfield period: utilitarian implements and status symbols

Hoard deposition in the Carpathian Basin and the Bronze/Iron transition

Crisis and system collapse in the Carpathian Basin

The demise of the Standard Bronze value system

Discussion and conclusions

Chapter 10. Italy

Southern Italy

Sicily

Sardinia

Central Italy

Northern Italy

Discussion and conclusions

Chapter 11. The Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands

The Villena Treasure

Phoenician traders and the first colonial foundations

The introduction of iron in Portugal

The introduction of iron in Spain

Discussion and conclusions

Chapter 12. Conclusions

Frequently occurring forms of artefacts during the early stages of the adoption of iron

Summary of the main trends in the introduction of iron

Iron and the Iron Age

Concluding remarks and perspectives for future research

References

Christopher Pare studied Prehistoric Archaeology at the University of Edinburgh, then conducted his doctoral research on Wagons and wagon-graves of the Early Iron Age in Central Europe at the University of Oxford. After working in the Romisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum in Mainz and at the University of Birmingham, he transferred to the Johannes Gutenberg University in Mainz as Professor of Pre- and Protohistoric Archaeology. Apart from his theoretical work, the author has directed fieldwork in England, Germany, Italy and Romania.

• By (author) Christopher Pare

‘Taken as a whole, the volume stands out as a highly detailed and comprehensive study that systematically brings together the current state of research on the introduction of iron in various regions and possesses a distinct handbook character, making it an indispensable reference work for students and researchers alike.’ – Enrico Lehnhardt (2026): Antiquity Vol. 100

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